CLST 277: The World of Late Antiquity Spring Semester 2017 Dr. Jacqueline Long

Study Questions

file in progress - perennially

The study questions in this file will be updated through the course of the semester from study questions used the last time this course was taught, with a slightly different arrangement of material. If the days are off, it's because the questions haven't yet been checked against the current progress and interests of the class. The old questions remain worth thinking about, but be sure double-check again later.

Friday 17 March

• As with all our primary sources, note when, where, and why Augustine wrote his Confessions. (For principles and advice, see again the web-pages set up by Drs. Rael and Koeller, and SQ3R)
• Situate Augustine in his own biographical, historical, social, and cultural context: where was he in his life when he wrote the Confessions, and what world did that life belong to?
• How do Augustine's own purposes in writing intersect with the information he provides? Consider in general as well as for this work specifically, what sort of filters do the author's experience and intentions put on the information he reports? With the Confessions, for example, how does Augustine's memoiristic re-evaluation of past actions and feelings give a double perspective on him at two points in his life?
• Compare and contrast what Augustine says about personal relationships within his family to other information we have encountered about late-Roman familial relationships. How typical or how rare does Augustine's experience of family seem to have been? In what ways do factors such as place of origin, class, education, and religion affect individuals' relationships? Identify specific examples from our source-material.

• Trace the information Augustine reports about his mother Monnica and her life, as he seems to have judged it relevant to his own message across the Confessions. [FWIW, the spelling with two ns seems to have been African, although most translators modernize it.] What aspects of her life does he single out? What does he report? What comparisons and contrasts can you draw between Monnica and other evidence we have seen about late-antique life (including, but not limited to, tonight's selections in Lee; and especially, but not necessarily only, relating to women's life and Christian life)?
• What ideas do tonight's selections in Lee suggest about Christian women in the late-antique family, women's service in Christian church-communities, and Christian sexual ethics? Note where and when the texts each originated; how far do they let us generalize any set of "Christian ideas about women"?

Monday 20 March

• According to what Augustine indicates, how was authority distributed in his parents' household: who effectively controlled what concerns of the household as a whole, and on what basis did he or she exert this control? How can you tell? Consider both religious and secular areas of concern and activity, and how Monnica connects her religious principles and her secular activities.
• What normative expectations of marital authority does Augustine suggest were generally held within his and his primary readers' society? Compare and contrast the norms Augustine seems to recognize as practiced (whether or not he thinks they are good norms to have) with other texts we have seen relating to family life; distinguish descriptive sources, where real-life conditions are reported, and prescriptive sources, where someone is recommending a particular idea of how things "should" be, either by endorsing "good" conduct or by censuring "bad" conduct.
• What religious activities does Monnica practice, at home in Africa and in Italy? To what extent does her activity conform with gendered standards of the late-antique Church?
• What practices and ideals of family life, and in particular of female conduct, does Monnica's childhood illustrate?

• What major interests and developments in literary and visual culture does Cameron outline as having been important in late antiquity? Where in our study-material to date can you identify items that help illustrate ideas she discusses?
• How do Claudian's short poems about The Magnet (one poem) and The Crystal (7 short poems on the same topic) combine natural science with visual imagery, traditional mythology, and other ideas in order to make elegant verbal curios comparable to the objects they are describing? What aesthetic values discussed by Cameron do these poems represent?
• Prepare Source-exercise in Visual Culture for Wednesday 3/22.

Wednesday 22 March

• How did late antique Christians react to the prevalence of pagan elements in traditional literature and art? N.b.: several different answers apply - distinguish who gave what answers, and consider why all the differences appear. Identify concrete examples that illustrate the interface of Christianity and pagan elements in traditional culture, and be able to explain what they show about Christian attitudes toward tradition and toward paganism.
• Depending what you read about late antique art, you may see contrasts made between the naturalism of artistic styles identified with earlier periods, and more schematic visual presentations that start to appear in our period. The distinction is worth making, but it has been over-drawn (recent scholarship is doing a better job now). Think of examples of naturalistic and schematic representation in late antique art, and be able to explain how the style chosen for a particular representation contributes to the artistic impression it makes.
• What aesthetic values were particularly admired by late antique viewers of late antique art and visual culture generally? How did verbal arts evoke similar effects? Think of examples to illustrate the tastes and trends you discern, and be able to explain how they fit your analysis.

• Who was Mani, as the Cologne Mani Codex remembers him? What does the Codex record that Mani identified as the crucial event of his life? What did Mani say he learned from this experience? What does the Codex record that he did, in consequence?
• What figures does the Manichaean Psalmbook identify as theologically important? What does it say they do?
• What features of Manichaean doctrine and practice does the Christian author of P.Ryl. 3.469 object to? Why?
• What rights did Roman emperors try to deny to Manichees? On what basis?
• How does Augustine, as a Hearer, begin to find problems with Manichaean doctrine? How has he signalled these difficulties in earlier parts of his account, before he comes to the time when he confronts them? How does he try to solve them: where does he look for clarification? Does he find it? How does he react?

Friday 24 March

• What were the main ideas of Manichaean doctrine? What affinities with other spiritual and intellectual movements in the later Roman empire did Manichaeanism claim or exhibit - whether because Mani was influenced by them in forming his doctrine, or with the result that Roman citizens were more sympathetic to Manichaeanism than they might have been to more alien doctrines?
• In what ways did Mani's actions and the texts that he and his followers produced help spread his doctrine? Consider both pragmatic and emotional aspects. Identify specific pieces of evidence for your assessments, and be able to explain and justify them.
• Compare and contrast Augustine's reactions to Manichaeanism, both as a young man within the narrative of Confessions and as an older man, writing Confessions, with both Augustine's reactions to Christian Scripture and to classical literature including philosophy and other contemporary reactions of ecclesiastical writers and Roman emperors. What dangers in Manichaeanism does Augustine's period of interest illustrate? How accurately do reactions against Manichaeanism portray the religion and its doctrine?

• Review all material assigned since Exam I, in preparation for Exam II on Monday. Organize your thoughts about important central focuses of our inquiry; see the Study Guide for suggestions with which to start.
  • What are the big events that set the course of Roman history through the periods we have been tracing? Into what sequence did these events fall? What causes and effects produced the events, and how did they influence one another? Your goal in this analysis is to understand the sequence as a progression, not just an arbitrary series.
  • Besides "event-history", we are now also engaged with the history of broader social and cultural trends - what important developments of our period shaped the way people interacted with one another or the way they looked at and thought about their world? Where in our study-material have we seen particular moments in these trends? What elements of the trends drew on earlier traditions? What is new? Identify and analyze the causes and the effects.
• Review all the assigned study-materials to date, and your notes on them. What information have they presented us with? How have they presented it? How does this information relate to the events, ideas, trends, causes, and effects we have been tracing? Identify good items of relevant source-material you can cite and explain in support of your insights into our shared historical inquiry. Review study-questions in the other file and above in this file so as to refresh your insights into important lines of inquiry.
• Review all class-discussions to date, and your notes on them (including the Source-exercises). What types of analysis have we brought to bear on our sources? What have we learned? Identify good examples of source-analysis that you can explain in support of your insights. Think also about how you can apply the same techniques to other sources we have maybe examined from different angles - capitalize on your intellectual resources.
• The study-questions in the other file and this file are fairly open-ended. They encourage you to think through the implications of our material, and explore the connections you find. Exam questions will suggest a tighter focus, in the interest of being possible to answer within the confines of an in-class exercise. The two sets of questions will come together in that if you have been thinking about the issues raised by class discussions and these study questions, and noting where our sources provide important evidence and how we can use it, you will be well prepared to write concrete, specific, persuasive essays on the exam. Focus on the exam questions and be sure to address them fully, drawing on the connections you have made in your open-ended studying. The more you can back up your ideas with specific, concrete evidence and clear explanations, the more impressively you will make your exam demonstrate your mastery of our material.
• Good luck!

Monday 27 March

• CONGRATULATIONS! You have completed the second examination.
• Keep thinking about the exam questions: in an even-more-perfect world, what more could you say about this history, these sources, and these techniques of historical inquiry?

• Trace the succession of emperors from Julian (the last successful member of the Constantinian dynasty) to Theodosius: who came to power? On what basis? What important events for the Empire as a whole took place during their reigns? Use the succession of emperors as a set of points of reference for chronology of this period.
• What religious policies are associated with Valentinian and other members of his dynasty?
• How did the parameters of social class shift during this period, both within upper ranks and among groups characterized by labor rather than by wealth and privilege? How did class relate to positions in the Roman army or imperial government? How did class relate to economic power? What other kinds of social power did superior rank confer? How was law involved in regulating social status?
• How was the class of coloni, tenant-farmers, defined? To what regulations were these people subject, and when were these rules instituted? What concerns does the Roman government seem to have been trying to guarantee by these rules? What other consequences did they have?

Wednesday 29 March

• What authority made Jovian emperor? What problems did he have to address? What measures did he take so as to resolve them?
• What authority made Valentinian emperor? What authority made Valens and Gratian emperors, at what rank? What authority made Valentinian II emperor? What ideas and emotions concerning imperial legitimacy does the succession of this dynasty illustrate the Roman armies and people felt?
• Compare and contrast the religious policies associated with Valentinian and other members of his dynasty with Constantine's and his sons'; with Julian's.
• What constellations of power did the phenomenon of child-emperors create? What stake did people besides the child-emperor himself have in his position: senior emperors of the same dynasty, officials of his court, non-office-holding members of the imperial family, Roman citizens in the area where his court was based, potential usurpers?

• Map the breadth and variety of military challenges Roman emperors had to face throughout the fourth century AD. What patterns of conflict stand out, in which regions? What consequences did these conflicts create?
• How did Theodosius resolve the crisis that climaxed in the Battle of Adrianople? (As Cameron notes, that climax is more a matter of Roman memory than of absolute military significance, but close enough.) What consequences did this solution create?
• What dynamics of threat, defense, and accommodation evolved in the east from the third and fourth centuries and beyond, between the Roman empire and the Persian empire? How were tribal groups involved?
• What dynamics of threat, defense, and accommodation evolved in the west in the fifth century, between the Roman empire and tribal groups?
• How did Romans evaluate their defenses in the fourth and fifth centuries? What problems did they identify? Compare and contrast to modern analysis: what were they looking at that is different from what we tend to look at, and what concerns motivated them to form the analysis they did? What political problems were related to concerns about the defense of the Empire?

Friday 31 March

• What measures generally credited to Diocletian endeavored to address problems with the military defense of the Roman empire: what was done, and how would it have helped?
• What measures generally credited to Constantine endeavored to address problems with the military defense of the Roman empire: what was done, and how would it have helped?
• Trace the historical patterns of non-Romans' service in Roman military forces. How did they change in the mid- and later fourth century? What events and dates mark significant change? What consequences were caused?
• Trace the historical patterns of non-Romans' service in Roman military forces. How did they change in the mid- and later fourth century? What events and dates mark significant change? What consequences were caused?

• Identify the sequence of events and the significant individual and group-participants in them, whose decisions and actions propel further events. Who does what? what consequences ensue?
• How does Ammianus characterize different barbarian groups relevant to the chain of events he treats in Book 31 and to the events' causes: what cultural values does his account incorporate?
• How does Ammianus characterize Roman officials who play a significant role in the action of Book 31: what objectives are they pursuing? How do their actions relate to their official responsibilities? Compare and contrast to Roman officials elsewhere in Ammianus's narrative: what picture of Roman administration does his history produce?

Monday 3 April

• Ammianus double-frames the events of Book 31, first as the concluding episode of Valens's life, then as the concluding episode of his history as a whole. First, note how he does so; then see what new events alter the overall trajectory. What does this epilogue show about Roman resources for recovering from a disaster like the Battle of Adrianople? Finally, think about how looking at an episode of history from different angles changes the way it can be evaluated: what does it matter if you think of it as something for which a particular individual is ultimately responsible -even taking into account the deeds and misdeeds of his subordinates and the conflicting interests to which he is subject- or else as a problem for a whole people?
• What safeguards does Valens attempt to set around the Gothic immigration? Why do they fail? What does Ammianus use this episode to suggest about Roman administration of a frontier zone?
• What other problems of the eastern Empire keep Valens from being able to deal more effectively with the Gothic immigration and its consequences? What bigger problems of imperial resources does this episode illustrate?
• What support is Valens able to call upon Gratian and the western administration for? Why is it not more effective? What problems of the distribution of resources and authority in two halves of the Empire does this episode illustrate?
• What judgments does Ammianus draw from the episode, implicitly as well as explicitly? How does he show that he's drawing them? What cultural and social values (ethnic, national, military, moral, and political) inform his judgments?

Get the complete texts of our documents for tonight on-line: Symmachus, Referral 3 and Ambrose, Letters XVII and XVIII; you may find it helpful also to refer to Lee's introductions to his selections from these documents, items #6.4, 6.5.

• What arguments does Symmachus advance in favor of retaining the Altar of Victory in the Senate House of Rome? How does it, according to him, relate to the well-being of the Roman state? How do emperors' acts concerning the Altar reflect on them as emperors, and on the success of their reigns? What values underlie Symmachus's arguments?
• What arguments does Ambrose advance against retaining the Altar of Victory in the Senate House of Rome? How does Ambrose account for the religious history of the Roman state? What values and assumptions underlie Ambrose's arguments?

Wednesday 5 April

• Who was Symmachus? Who was Ambrose? Compare and contrast their backgrounds and biographies, and the stake each accordingly had in the Altar of Victory.
• Trace the history of the Altar within the Senate House in Rome. What function did it serve: what did people actually do with it? What symbolic value did they attach to it? What changed, from the early Empire to late antiquity?
• Analyze Symmachus's arguments for returning the Altar to its traditional place. What values and understandings -both religious and political- does he attach to the Altar? Based on your other knowledge of late antique cultural values (held by Christians as well as pagans) relating to traditional paganism, how acceptable would Symmachus's arguments have seemed? Be able to cite specific, concrete evidence and to explain how it relates to the arguments Symmachus makes. Are there any arguments an accurate understanding of traditional Roman state cult might have advanced, that Symmachus could not use? What and why?
• How apt and fair are Ambrose's counter-arguments? How does he pick up and reinterpret elements of Symmachus's arguments? How accurately does he represent the functions of the Altar and the traditional state cults of Rome?

• Take Ambrose's On the Sacraments (Lee #14.6) as an example of his rhetorical technique as a bishop: how does he present ideas to his listeners? How does he use imagery? How does he involve his listeners in the experience he is talking about? How does he relate ideas and images from the Old Testament to his Christian message?
• What images does Ambrose use in his evening-hymn (Lee #14.10)? What relationship between worshiper and divinity does he suggest? In what way do Ambrose's language and imagery promote these ideas?
• According to his Letter XX, how was Ambrose involved in controversy over whether a basilica church should be set aside for Arian Christians in Milan, in 385? What was he asked to do? What did he do? How does he justify his position?

Friday 7 April

• What are generally recognized as Ambrose's main contributions to the western-European traditions of Catholicism?
  • How did Ambrose's innovations relate to intellectual trends within the late-antique Roman Empire and to specific events of Ambrose's life?
  • Identify significant examples from Ambrose's preaching, hymnody, and negotiations with emperors, analyze them, and support your insights about what Ambrose did and why it matters.
• What issue was in conflict that Ambrose reported to his sister in Letter XX? Who were the stakeholders? What stakes did Ambrose identify them as having; what conflicting interpretations does his report indicate also operated in the controversy? On what principles were the conflicting claims based? How broadly recognized were those principles, in this period: compare and contrast Ambrose's account to other material we have read this term that touches on related points of imperial and ecclesiastical prerogative.

• What portrait does Augustine present of Ambrose: what does the bishop of Milan do that is important to this witness? Add the impressions Augustine gathers of Ambrose to information about Ambrose we have encountered in other sources, including Ambrose's own writings.
• Make a list of the people Augustine recognizes in Confessions (both in Books 6-7 and in earlier books) as having participated significantly in his spiritual development: teacher-figures, fellow-searchers, people Augustine himself instructs in some way - why are they each important to Augustine in this retrospective account of his life? What information does he give about them and their lives that is useful to historical inquiry about late Roman social life?
• What evidence and what reasoning does Augustine use with the result that he finally rejects the idea that astrology significantly relates to an individual's fate?
• How do Neoplatonic texts enable Augustine to change the basis on which he understands God's relationship to the created world? What does this way of thinking enable him to decide that "evil" amounts to? How does he experience this moment of recognition?

Monday 10 April

• What patterns of late antique society are reflected in Augustine's portrait of Alypius? Why are these general trends important to Augustine, in Alypius's particular case?
• What expectations surround Augustine's prospects for marriage: who brings what objectives to the arrangements? What social trends of the period can we identify? What understandings and values inform the parties' dealings with one another?
• What intellectual problems relating to the nature of divinity and the requirements of religion does Augustine identify as occupying his attention in this period of his life? What information, what kinds of reasoning, and what standards of judgment does he apply to the business of trying to solve his problems?

• Who was Antony, according to Athanasius's account of his life? What did he do? Where did he get the ideas on which he acted, according to Athanasius - what instructions did he think of himself as following, and what examples did he follow?
• Define and be able to identify examples of the main varieties of ascetic lifestyle that late antique culture recognized.
• What problems with asceticism were discussed in our period? From what perspectives did aspects of ascetic lifestyles seem problematical?

Happy Easter!

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Wednesday 19 April

From today's class:

• According to the Confessions, Augustine advanced toward his ultimate relationship with the Catholic Christian God along both intellectual and emotional tracks, which sometimes intersected and sometimes parted from one another; sometimes he proceeded in interaction with others, sometimes in private meditation with himself and God. Trace how the two tracks run, together and separately, through the narrative: what concerns arrested Augustine's intellect? where did his heart participate? how did both tracks ultimately converge in his conversion?
• Whose stories besides his own does Augustine include in Books 8-9? Which stories are attested elsewhere in our primary sources? Compare and contrast Augustine's account of these stories with the accounts given by our other sources: what elements does Augustine treat as especially important? how do they connect with his emphases in his story about his own commitment to Christianity?
• As reported or referred to in Augustine's Confessions, how does the motif of the "unintended message" impel spiritual movement? How did Augustine, and other late antique people, apply the principle in interpreting similar moments as spiritual messages?

For tonight's reading:

• Identify clearly the authorship, context, and purpose of the various expressions of hostility towards Jews or Judaism tonight's reading-assignment includes.
• What contacts between Jewish and Christian people got forbidden, as a matter of conciliar Church policy? What attitudes and values do the prohibitions express? On the other hand, what do they imply had been happening - why did the councils choose to articulate the prohibitions?
• On what kinds of occasions did bishops advance anti-Jewish arguments? What events or what social pressures provoked them? Who was exerting the pressures? What goals were the bishops trying to re-direct by means of their arguments?
• What policies did emperors enact into law concerning Jewish individuals and communities? Compare and contrast the general attitudes the laws express with the specific provisions they make. Note also the dates of these provisions - how did imperial policy regarding Jews shift from earlier periods?

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Friday 21 April

From today's class:

• What considerations traditionally governed Diaspora Jews' stance in relationship to Gentile communities, Roman government's stance in relationship to Jewish communities, and the attitudes of ordinary non-Jews (pagan or Christian, but without particular investment in any institutional stance) towards Jews and Judaism?
• What considerations complicated the attitudes towards Jews and Judaism promulgated by Christian clergy?
• What considerations governed late-antique emperors' legislation concerning Jews and Jewish-Christian relations?
• Identify specific passages in our texts that illustrate your answers, and be able to explain how you can use that evidence to deduce the attitudes and purposes that generated the texts and the actions with which they are associated.

For tonight's reading:

• What do the documents relating to pilgrimage show to have been components of this type of religious experience: what did pilgrims do? Where did they go? What did they hope to find? What other activities, besides those they specifically purposed, involved them on their pilgrimages? What did their activities mean to them?
• What criticisms of pilgrimage did Gregory of Nyssa make? To what goals does he give importance?

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Monday 24 April

From today's class:

• Why did people in late antiquity go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land? What types of experience did they seek? How did they expect it would benefit them? In what ways do texts and objects give evidence for popular beliefs? Pay attention to how you are using sources in order to answer historical questions.
• What support in favor of pilgrimage, and what criticism against it, did Christian doctrine give to writers who shaped the ideas of the Church? Compare and contrast these theoretically-informed perspectives on pilgrimage to popular sentiments: to what extent were these writers and the broad population of Christians in general concerned about the same elements of pilgrims' experience? Where they differed, what concerns made their outlooks different?
• How could non-pilgrims relate to pilgrims' experiences?
• Besides the religious value of pilgrimage, what other facts and ideas about the way life was lived in late antiquity does evidence about pilgrims' experience enable historical inquiry to learn?

For tonight's reading:

• According to Ambrose's Letter XL, what circumstances surrounded the burning of a synagogue at Callinicum? How did Theodosius react - what did he propose to have done? How did Ambrose come to be involved? What did he want Theodosius to do? How does he justify his position?
• According to Ambrose's Letter LI, what circumstances surrounded the soldiers' massacre of citizens at Thessalonica? How did Ambrose come to be involved? What did he want Theodosius to do? How does he justify his position?
• Beyond the immediate concerns, how does Ambrose propose more generally that an emperor and a bishop ought to deal with one another? What kinds of authority does Ambrose argue should operate in the relationship? What reasoning governs his proposals?

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Wednesday 26 April

From today's class:

• Review use of literary sources to reconstruct events, using Ambrose's Letter XL for an example: what statements in the letter, and what logical reasoning, enable you to put together what happened in Callinicum in 388?
• Besides the events involved in the burning of the synagogue itself, what considerations enter into Ambrose's response? What facts and what relationships of power are involved? What statements in Letter XL and what reasoning enable you to recognize and assess these considerations? For example - but think also what further considerations you can identify: spiritual authority and the welfare of souls, the idea of persecution and its potential to spur popular resistance, economic burdens of secular social responsibilities on local upper-classes across the Roman empire, imperial authority and civil order.
• What happened in the massacre of citizens in Thessalonica in 390? What statements by Ambrose in Letter LI even touch on these events, and what logical reasoning from the statements do you need to apply in order to recognize references to the events?
• How was Theodosius's authority as emperor implicated in the massacre? Analyze how the mechanism of what Ambrose proposed Theodosius should do offered Theodosius a route out of the political problems the massacre caused for him. What additional consequences did this course of action create?

For tonight's reading:

• What considerations does Cameron identify as important factors in the "decline and fall" (or not) of the later Roman empire?
  • What causes and effects does she explain?
  • How do these themes and these chains of causes and effects relate to our study-material over the whole term? Look for specific connections. What new lights does this perspective cast on the other conclusions we have drawn from this material?
  • What was the Theodosian Code? (Check back on the relevant pages in Cameron, too.) How was its publication announced to the Roman Senate? How did the senators respond? In what form was their response recorded?
• Looking ahead: Study guide for the final exam.

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Friday 28 April

From today's class:

• What tendencies shaped the societies of the western and eastern parts of the Roman empire during the late antique period (continuing, in their turn, tendencies from the High empire and earlier periods), so that -besides the contingencies of how foreign invasions struck into Roman territory in the fifth century- the east survived more stably and eventually became the Byzantine empire, whereas the western parts of the empire eventually devolved into multiple successor-kingdoms? Identify evidence we have considered that illustrates these tendencies, and be able to explain causes and effects in concrete detail. Factors to consider should include distribution of wealth and social power over class, stability of military defense and the connection of local populations to the central government of the whole empire, functionality of local communities, especially cities and towns, to meet citizens' needs, cultural affinities and integration of Roman and non-Roman populations; what else do you see as important? Consider, and explain why.
• Along with the differences, what evidence do we have for commonalities between west and east? What consequences arose from the parallels and points of contact between the two "halves" of Roman territory: in what ways was the culture of the later Roman empire united?
• Review how the position of the Christian religion and its Church changed over the late antique period. What institutions and structures developed? Under what impulses? What did they change, in consequence, within late Roman society as a whole?
• What elements of late Roman imperial culture were perpetuated past the "fall" of Rome? Why?

For next week

Review all material assigned to date for the final exam Saturday 5/6.

• What do the texts we have studied (both separately and as exerpted by Lee) tell us about the actions and concerns of late antique Roman citizens, non-Romans, Senators, bishops, monks, scholars, Jews, pilgrims, soldiers, administrators, and emperors?
  • Review assigned readings and your notes on them. What are the major concerns we have been focusing on? What passages illustrate important historical moments particularly well? These key texts will be good things to refer to as evidence for proving points on your exam: be able to cite them and analyze clearly how they can serve historical inquiry.
  • Review your notes from class discussions. What types of analysis have we brought to bear on our texts? You can apply techniques of analysis we have used on one text, to another, and get still more out of it. On the exam, you will need to explain how the evidence you are citing helps to support your insights.
  • Study Questions in this and the other e-files flag important issues within the material we are studying. Typically they are fairly open-ended: they encourage you to think through the implications of our material, and explore the connections you find. Exam questions will suggest a tighter focus, in the interests of being possible to answer within the confines of an in-class exercise. But if you have been thinking about the issues raised by class discussions and the study questions, and noting passages of our texts that provide important evidence, you will be well prepared to write concrete, specific, persuasive essays on the exam. Again, remember! Be ready to identify specific pieces of evidence and to show how they demonstrate your ideas.
• See also Study Guide for the final exam.
• Thanks for your attention, your questions, and your concern for learning about doing history. Good luck as you wrap up the semester, and with all you do beyond!

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